Introduction

My name is Yaniv Stern and I got a PhD in biology from the University of Leeds in England. The theory of evolution has reduced all of biological diversity to a single cell, a mere lipid vesicle encapsulating a short random sequence of RNA. When I broke this vesicle further down through its constituent molecules and atoms at the sub atomic level I discovered increasing complexity with many elementary particles and forces and this did not make sense to me. I felt that as matter is broken down, further and further, fewer elementary particles and forces should exist, the simpler the rules of science should become. So I decided to reconstruct physics using only two elementary particles, positive and negative particles, and one electric force in three dimensional volume.

Matter

Types of Matter

The most fundamental units of matter in the universe are P and E particles (Figure 1). The negative charge of an E particle is (-1) and the positive charge of a P particle is slightly higher than +1 (>+1). Nuclear matter consists of PE and P2E particles. A PE particle has a charge slightly higher than zero (>0) and a P2E particle has a charge higher than +1 (>+1). A hydrogen atom (H) consists of a P2E and an E particles and has a charge higher than zero (>0).

Figure 1 Types of Matter

Elementary Interactions

Elementary interactions are based on the rules of electricity: similarly charged particles repel each other and oppositely charged particles attract each other. Figure 2 provides a small sample of many possible interactions. (a) Two P particles repel each other. (b) Two E particles repel each other. (c) P and E particles interact to form a PE particle, the smallest member of a family of almost neutral composite particles. (d) PE and P particles interact to form a P2E particle. (e) PE and E particles interact to form a PE2 particle. (F) Two PE particles interact to form a P2E2 particle, the next member in the family of almost neutral composite particles. (g) P2E particle decays to PE and P particles. (h) PE2 particle decays to PE and E particles. (i ) P2E2 particle decays to P2E and E particles or two PE particles or two P and two E particles obeying conservation of particles.

Figure 2 Elementary Interactions

Nuclears

Figure 3 shows isotopes of hydrogen and helium. A single proton, protium (1H) is described as a P2E particle. Deuterium (2H) is a P3E2 particle. Tritium (3H) is a P4E3 particle and decays into a P4E2 particle (3He). 4He is described as a P5E3 particle. Larger nuclears of the periodic table are formed inside stars.

Figure 3 Nuclear Isotopes

Radioactivity

Alpha radiation consists of P5E3-like particles, beta radiation consists of E particles or P particles travelling at different speeds and gamma radiation consists of PE particles and could ionize atoms by direct collisions with atomic particles (Figure 4).

Figure 4 Radiocativity

Atoms

Atoms are made up of positively charged nuclears surrounded by negatively charged orbital E particles (Figure 5). Inside nuclears charged particles move around and change positions and at any point on the surface of nuclears charges rapidly alternate. Orbital E particles are attracted to nuclears by more positive charges but repelled by negative charges and unable to establish permanent contacts form a cloud around nuclears. The speeds of orbital E particles surrounding a nuclear could be comparable to it's atomic spectrum and deceleration and acceleration of orbital E particles in atoms could fall inside the width of a spectral line. An incoming E particle travelling at speed comparable to an orbital E particle could displace the orbital E particle. The orbital E particle is ejected in a different trajectory.

Figure 5 Atoms

Heat & Pressure

Heat (infrared) consists of negatively charged E particles and the charge of a material is heat-dependent. At low levels of heat materials are more positively charged and the positive charge of materials decreases as E heat particles enter the material (Figure 6). In solids, liquids and gasses the charge of materials decreases at increasing temperatures and during melting and evaporation the charge of materials decreases without a change in temperature. In high heat capacity materials more E heat particles are absorbed by atoms in the material and in low heat capacity materials more E heat particles deflect between atoms in the material and enter a thermometer to register an increase in temperature. In cold objects intrinsic pressure (inter-nuclear repulsive forces) resists contraction. In warmer objects moving E particles collide, push and pull on other charged particles and induce vibrations and add kinetic pressure to push expansion. Most of earth's internal heat could be generated by orbital E particles dislodged from atoms at dense core. In stars kinetic pressure involves alpha, beta and gamma radiation and nuclear fission.  

Figure 6 Heat & Pressure

Particles in an Electric Field

The theory proposes distance a charged particle travels in an electric field equals number of P and E particles to charge ratio multiplied by speed over strength of the electric field [(nP+nE)/q] x (speed/electric field), (Figure 7). Say, the negative charge of an E particle is -1 and the positive charge of a P particle is +1.1. The number of P and E particles to charge ratio for an E particle is -1, for a P2E particle is 2.5 and for a PE particle is 20. Tinkering with the positive charge of a P particle and the numbers of P and E particles in nuclears and adding a few more mathematical terms could complete the equation. The theory predicts a laser beam should deflect by strong electric and magnetic fields and precision deflection measurements are required to test this prediction.

Figure 7 Particles in an Electric Field

Electricity

A simple circuit showing a battery powering a light bulb (Figure 8a). The theory proposes the number of E particles entering the bulb from the negative pole of the battery should equal the number of E particles exiting the bulb to the positive pole of the battery plus the number of E particles radiated from the bulb. The theory predicts electric current entering a radiation-emitting device should be higher than electric current exiting the device and precision current measurements are required to test this prediction.

A light bulb connected to a secondary coil of a transformer (Figure 8b). Alternating current in the secondary coil is generated by alternating electric charges in the primary coil. Light and heat E particles radiated by the bulb will cause a gradual decline in intensity unless replaced by E particles from the environment maybe emission of E particles from the primary coil. E particles lost from the primary coil could be replaced by E particles from the ground.

Figure 8 Electric Circuits 

Magnetism

The magnetic force is described using E particles, holes (absence of E particles) and an assumption that charges moving in opposite directions interact more strongly than charges moving in the same direction (Figure 9). (9a) Currents moving in the same direction along conductors and around nuclears in magnets attract because attractive forces between E particles and holes are stronger than repulsive forces between E particles and repulsive forces between holes. (9b) Currents moving in opposite directions along conductors and around nuclears in magnets repel because repulsive forces between E particles and repulsive forces between holes are stronger than attractive forces between E particles and holes. (9c) Interactions between E particles and holes in a compass and a conductor are strongest and most stable when the compass aligns perpendicularly to the conductor.

Figure 9 Magnetism

Light

Chromatic Refraction

The theory proposes white light consists of E particles traveling at different speeds and chromatic refraction depends on speed (Figure 10). Faster E particles refract less than slower E particles at close proximity to the positive charge of a prism. The theory predicts red light travels faster than blue light in a vacuum. Heat (infrared), radio waves, microwaves and x-rays refract less than red and predicted to travel faster than red. Ultraviolet refracts more than blue and is predicted to travel slower than blue light.

Figure 10 Chromatic Refraction

Wave Properties of Light

The arrangement of E light particles into waves could be explained with ellipses say fast E particles stretch into ellipses. Stronger repulsive forces at poles of ellipses could favor arrangement into waves. (Figure 11a) Light travels in waves and passes through a single slit and diffracts in all directions. (Figure 11b) The bright and dark stripes observed in double slit experiments could be explained if E light particles travel in waves and accumulate at points of intersections between waves. Red light travels faster than blue light and consists of more elliptical E particles hence has a longer wavelength and diffracts more than blue light. Red and blue light waves emitted by a star could arrive at the same frequency.

Figure 11 Diffraction of Light

Photoelectric Effect

Blue light reflected from a cathode ejects faster electrons than red light (Figure 12). The theory proposes blue light E particles travel slower than red light E particles and disrupt more strongly loosely bound E particles on the surface of the cathode. Red light E particles travel faster than blue light E particles and interact more weakly and briefly with loosely bound E particles on the cathode. The theory predicts a red light photon absorbed by a cathode should produce a stronger signal than a blue light photon.

Figure 12 Photoelectric Effect

Radiation Curves

Radiation curves are explained with luminosities and speeds of E particles radiated from stars (Figure 13). The luminosity of a star (number of E particles radiated per unit time) depends on the density of hydrogen, fusion and beta radiation. Larger and denser stars with higher density of hydrogen have higher rates of fusion and beta radiation hence are more luminous than smaller stars with lower density of hydrogen, fusion and beta radiation. The speed of radiated E particles depends on the surface gravity of a star. Larger and denser stars have higher surface gravities slow E particles more than smaller and less dense stars with lower surface gravities.

Figure 13 Radiation Curve

Doppler Shifts

E light particles received from an approaching star should travel faster (speed of light plus speed of star) at shorter wavelengths and higher frequency, and light received from a receding star should travel slower (speed of light minus speed of star) at longer wavelengths and lower frequency of waves than light received from a star located at a fixed position in space (Figure 14). The motion of an observer should also effect speed, wavelength and frequency of light. An observer moving towards a star should receive E particles travelling faster at shorter wavelengths and higher frequency of waves and an observer moving away from a star should receive E particles travelling slower at longer wavelengths and lower frequency of waves. The theory predicts galactic red-shifts of spectral lines obtained by diffraction or reflection grating should be blue-shifted when dispersed by a prism, and also predicts there should be more galaxies on a Hubble deep field picture taken with a blue-pass filter than with a red-pass filter. 

Figure 14 Doppler Shifts

Polarization of Light

Polarization of light requires an additional asymmetry and could be explained with discs, say, fast elliptical E particles also flatten into discs. An E particle with a vertical plane can pass through a polarizing material with vertical gaps and an E particle with a horizontal plane collides with the material (Figure 15). 

Figure 15 Polarization of Light

Gravity

Gravity on Earth

The positive charge of the earth creates a positive gravitational field. The positive charge of the earth pulls on E particles and pushes on P particles inducing charge asymmetry with a low positive pole facing the earth and a high positive pole facing away from the earth (Figure 16). The low positive pole decreases the repulsive force from the direction of the earth and the high positive pole increases the repulsive force from the opposite side to earth pushing the object towards the earth. Surface gravity on earth depends on its size and density (charge/volume).

Figure 16 Gravity on Earth

Planetary Orbits

The positive charge of the sun creates a positive gravitational field (Figure 17). A planet located at close proximity to the sun has charge asymmetry with a low positive hemisphere facing the sun and a high positive hemisphere facing away from the sun. The low positive hemisphere of the planet facing the sun decreases the repulsive force from the direction of the sun and the high positive hemisphere of the planet facing away from the sun increases the repulsive force from the opposite direction to the sun and pushes the planet towards the sun. 

Figure 17 Planetary Orbits

Gravitational Lensing

Stars have a measured angular separation. When the sun is located between the stars they appear to be further apart with increased angular separation (Figure 18). The theory proposes negatively charged E light particles bend inwards by the positive charge of the sun.

Figure 18 Gravitational Lensing

Universe

Origin

The universe began as a primordial sphere made up of P and E particles (Figure 19). A higher positive charge of P particles than negative charge of E particles gave this sphere a positive charge that triggered its expansion (the big bang) and pushes the universe apart to this day and forever. The numbers of P and E particles inside the primordial sphere should remain conserved throughout the evolution of the universe. A second property of the primordial sphere was the density of particles not homogeneous, but patchy, with higher density regions and lower density regions. Higher density regions developed into stars, galaxies and the large scale filamentous structure of the universe and low density regions developed into inter galactic voids.

Figure 19 The Primordial Sphere

Development

Stages early in the development of the universe (Figure 20). Following the elementary stage of the primordial sphere, at the beginning of the nuclear stage, P and E particles interacted to form PE particles. PE particles interacted to form P2E2 particles which quickly decayed into a plasma mixture of P2E and E particles. P2E2 particles formed transiently when P2E and E particles contacted each other and interacted to form larger isotopes of hydrogen and helium. The density of the universe at the nuclear stage was equivalent to the density of a red dwarf star and was not sufficiently high to generate nuclears larger than helium. At the end of the nuclear stage the universe consisted of a plasma mixture dominated by small nuclears and E particles. As the universe expanded further and its density decreased nuclears interacted more permanently with E particles to form atoms ushering in the atomic stage. During the atomic stage denser regions of gas began to contract under the pushing force of gravity to form the first stars and galaxies.

Figure 20 Development of the Universe

Stars

A luminosity and color graph (HR diagram) showing luminous blue stars and dim red stars (Figure 21). The theory proposes the color of a star is determined by its surface gravity and predicts a gravitational blueshift of spectral lines. Young main sequence stars consist of a plasma mixture dominated by P2E and E particles. P2E2 particles form briefly when a P2E and E particles contact each other. Three P2E2 particles could fuse together to form a P6E6 particle which beta decays and radiates two E light particles and a PE particle and transforms into a P5E3 helium nuclear. In larger and denser stars more P2E2 particles interact to form larger nuclears. In the process of hydrogen fusion and beta radiation hydrogen stars gradually turn into nuclear stars (white dwarfs, neutron stars and black holes). Blue giant stars are larger and denser than red dwarf stars, have higher rates of hydrogen fusion and beta radiation hence are more luminous and hotter and have shorter lives than red stars. 

Figure 21 Luminosity Color Diagram

Lives of Stars

A gas nebula sufficiently large and dense contracts under the pushing force of gravity to form stars (Figure 22). Density of hydrogen, fusion, beta radiation and luminosities of stars are highest at formation and decline over time. Nuclear fission, the primary force of expansion, is lowest at formation and increases over time to push expansion into red giant stars. Red giant stars have low densities and reduced surface gravities. In the process of nuclear fission large nuclears split into smaller more familiar nuclears of the periodic table. The outer layers of red giant stars are expelled gently to form a planetary nebulas or more violent supernova explosions. The cores of red giant stars contract to form nuclear stars. Rotating stars and accretion discs create magnetic fields that could disrupt direction of charge asymmetry and the positive charge of stars push bipolar gas flows. In time, nuclear stars will expand and decay into smaller and smaller nuclears. 

Figure 22 Lives of Stars

Galaxies

Younger galaxies are bluer than older galaxies because younger galaxies contain more blue giant stars. As gas supply runs out and star formation stops short lived blue giant stars explode leaving longer lived red dwarf stars to shine (Figure 23a). The colors of stars and galaxies are further altered, in addition to surface gravity and motions of stars, by intervening gas and dust. The theory proposes slower E particles scatter more than faster E particles when passing through gas and dust. Sequential dropout (reddening) of the most distant galaxies from filters could result from preferential scattering of slow E particles by inter-galactic gas. The theory proposes cosmic microwave background radiation (CMB) consists of E particles travelling faster than radio, heat and light and penetrated deeper through the gaseous universe (Figure 23b). The theory also proposes our Milky Way galaxy is accelerating away from the center of the universe and predicts there should be more galaxies on the cooler than on the warmer side of the CMB. A whole sky deep field survey and precision counting are required to test this prediction. The warmer and cooler patterns imposed on the CMB dipole could represent higher and lower densities of galaxies.

Figure 23 Galaxies

Time

Time is a measure of change and change is driven by the positive charge of the universe. The positive charge of the universe pushes its expansion - changes in distances, and pushes the formation of stars and galaxies. Change/time is one directional - future (Figure 24). Polar atoms could vibrate slower than non-polar atoms and explain why atomic clocks tick slower at strong gravitational fields and fast speeds. 

Figure 24 Time

Laws of Motion

Forces, Weight & Speed

In a positive universe positive matter experiences positive repulsive forces from all directions. When forces from opposite directions balance an object remains suspended in space and weightless (Figure 25a). When forces from opposite directions are unequal, an object is pushed by the stronger force towards the weaker force (Figure 25b). A free object moves towards the weaker force while a stationary object gains weight. The difference between opposite forces determines weight, a larger difference is heavier and a smaller difference is lighter (Figure 25c). An object of charge (mass) +1 experiences half the forces and half the difference between forces and weighs half as much as an object of charge +2. Speed (v) is determined by the ratio between forces acting on an object. Objects +1 and +2 have the same ratio between forces and accelerate at the same speed. 

Figure 25 Forces, Weight (W) and Speed (v)

Gravitational Acceleration

An object located at distance from surface gravity has low charge asymmetry, ratio between forces and speed (Figure 26). As the object falls closer to surface gravity its charge asymmetry, ratio between forces and speed increase. Charge asymmetry, difference and ratio between forces are highest at surface gravity and decrease towards center of charge.

Figure 26 Gravitational Acceleration

Inertia

A force exerted on an object induces charge asymmetry proportional to the strength of the force. An object of charge (mass) +1 should accelerate in a vacuum to travel at more than twice the speed of object +2 when an equal force is applied (Figure 27).

Figure 27 Inertia and Speed 

Expansion of Earth

The size of the earth is balanced by opposing forces; the inwards push of weight (W) and the outwards push of internal pressure (P) (Figure 28a). The expansion of the universe decreases W (Figure 28b) and P is predicted to push the expansion of the earth. The expansion of the earth decreases its surface gravity. The expansion of the universe decreases the gravitational field of the earth. The expansion of the universe also decreases density of hydrogen, rate of fusion, beta decay and luminosities of stars. The theory predicts in the past stars were more luminous than stars at present.

Figure 28 Expansion of Earth

Expansion of the Universe

An object located at the center of the universe experiences equal forces from all directions. All objects located away from the center of the universe experience unequal forces and are pushed outwards and increase the size of the universe.

Figure 29 Expansion of the Universe

Weight & Heat.

The theory proposes heat consists of negatively charged E particles and predicts a linear correlation between heat absorbed and reduction in weight of a sample (Figure 30).

Figure 30 Weight & Heat

Supporting Research

The theory predicts W of heated metals should decrease at increasing temperature in a vacuum. I searched the literature and didn't find any paper weighing heated metals in a vacuum. I did, however, found a few papers showing weights of heated metals decrease at increasing temperatures in air. Figure 31 shows weight reduction of 20 grams metal rod and tube in air. The metals were cooled by 5.4 degC, placed on the balance, and allowed to warm back up to room temperature. The rod lost 100 micrograms and the tube lost 200 micrograms. The author proposes air convection is responsible for weight reduction and the observation that a tube and a rod of the same weight and material but with different shapes and surface area to volume ratios dropped weight by different amounts support a role for air convection.

Figure 31 Weight Reduction of Heated Metals in Air.

Figure 32 shows weight reduction of a heated thermal insulator in air. In this experiment air convection was significantly reduced and 166 grams vessel heated for 20 seconds lost more than 100 micrograms. This result suggests intrinsic temperature of a sample also has an effect on weight. The author of this paper proposes temperature decreases the force of gravity. If so, hot objects should fall slower than cold objects and this has to be incorporated into the curvature of space-time and the hot big bang model with explosive consequences. In my theory the ratio between forces determines rate of fall and hot and cold objects should fall at the same rate.

Figure 32 Weight Reduction of a Heated Thermal Insulator in Air.

Summary

I am looking for scientists to weigh a heated metal in a vacuum and find the missing weight predicted by my theory. I am looking for scientists to test Conservation of Mass - the most fundamental theorem of science.